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Introduction

Knowledge of the history, and some would say even the existence, 除了一小群学者和有历史头脑的人之外,人们对美国北部奴隶制的历史知之甚少. Indeed, 尽管1991年在曼哈顿发现了纽约非洲人墓地考古遗址后,人们对北方奴隶制的认识呈指数增长, 关于奴隶制作为殖民地和早期美国北方生活的一个重要方面的研究和公众理解仍然很少被认识到,甚至更少被理解(LaRoche和Blakey, 1997), Melish 1998, Hodges 2019). 

Nowhere is this more the case than in northern New Jersey. Settled as part of the Dutch New Netherland colony, 卑尔根和新泽西北部的其他县发展了以农业为主的经济,为新阿姆斯特丹(后来的纽约)的城市中心生产剩余的食物和燃料。, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic world. Historians (e.g., Hodges 1999, 2010; Fishman 1997; Hack 2012; Gigantino 2015) have documented the development of the region and its consistent reliance on enslaved African and African American laborers. For more than 200 years, enslaved laborers cleared fields, built homes and outbuildings, planted and harvested crops, tended to farm animals, carted fertilizer and produce, cared for children, 并完成了无数其他任务,使他们的主人富裕起来,并稳定了定居者社会. 

虽然这项工作在该州很普遍,而且不仅仅是被奴役的非洲人做的, 新泽西北部以荷兰人为主的农民对奴隶制的依赖尤为突出. 卑尔根县一直是新泽西州所有县中被奴役人口比例最高的县, 在1726年到1820年的人口普查中剩下的接近20%. 霍奇斯(1999:109)估计奴隶占卑尔根劳动力的40%, 这一事实导致大多数无地白人和白人佃户离开这个县,到其他地方寻找机会. This sense is captured by this account (Ryan 1996:7), 彼得·哈森克利夫在书中描述了1764年从纽瓦克沿帕塞伊克河逆流而上的旅行: 

We appeared to have been suddenly transported to the Netherlands. The Dutch are settled throughout this fertile river valley. The roads are lined with the fields of prosperous-looking farms, in some cases of hundreds of acres; they are able to maintain such large properties by the use of slaves. I saw dozens of them hoeing in the furrows, men, women and children, often singing in a deep mournful-sounding way. 

这个令人回味的场景清楚地描绘了奴隶制可见的情况, common, normal, and a basic foundation of the local community. 我希望读者在阅读下面的文章时,能记住这一形象. 我建议他们将这一想法与历史学家格雷厄姆·霍奇斯(Graham Hodges, 1998年8月30日)的一段话结合起来:“卑尔根县的历史让我们思考,如果没有一个白人公民反对奴隶制或支持黑人自由,美国的未来将会是什么样子。.卑尔根和新泽西州北部其他县对奴隶制的投入和承诺,并不是美国北方的常态. Rather, this region, 特别是在18世纪和19世纪早期,可能是最接近Ira Berlin(1998)所说的“奴隶社会”的社会.与实行奴隶制的“奴隶社会”形成鲜明对比, but was one among many forms of labor, 奴隶社会集中于永久和继承的契约劳动. Moreover, in slave societies slavery is sustained by law, economy, politics, and a wide latitude granted to slaveowner authority, 包括有权惩罚或杀死他们的奴隶财产而没有追索权. 认识到这一情况对于解释新泽西州的奴隶制和自由历史至关重要.  

At the same time, this is a story about Africans and African Americans, 因此,我们不能只关注他们是如何被白人定居者虐待和剥削的. As with all people, 被奴役和自由的有色人种寻求自决,并为维护他们赢得的自由而斗争. 霍奇斯(1989:1)对这些非裔美国新泽西人设想自由的方式提供了一个有用的概述: 

Freedom meant several things: personal freedom to exercise rights, to form black institutions, create black leadership, to work for wages, 为过去的错误报仇,通过服兵役来保护和扩大自由. 而不是在荷兰大师的家长式作风中表达自己的身份, 黑人依靠的是一种来自非洲传统和奴隶制与自由的坩埚的意识形态. 

以下对早期新泽西州非裔美国人社区的二手文献的回顾因此认为奴隶制和自由是一种由权力谈判定义的关系. On one side there was the power of the colony and the state, the masters, 一个种族主义的白人社区试图限制黑人的自由. One the other side were Africans and African Americans, who found power in resistance, retribution, and their own forms of community. As Hodges suggests, these drew from multiple sources, some ancient and African and others recent and American. 

虽然这次审查的重点是新泽西州北部, 例子来自于全州范围内的奴隶制和自由. 我遵循大多数研究人员使用的框架,将故事分成时间片段,从最初的殖民定居和荷兰殖民开始, turning next to the early decades under English rule, 接下来的几十年是18世纪的中心. 在这些章节之后,我将回顾美国独立战争时期以及将我们带到19世纪初的解放运动时期. The last section reviews the first part of the nineteenth century, 追溯了奴隶制在该州的缓慢终结以及直到1860年非洲裔美国人自由生活的发展. 全书的重点是非洲人后裔和社区在与艾滋病作斗争时的经历, adjusted to, 并抵制法律地位和种族对他们施加的限制.